Bees Can Use Tools—And Train Other Bees to Use Them, Too

<section class="entry-content instapaper_body clearfix" itemprop="articleBody">
<div class="add-container clearfix" id="add-block-placer">
</div>
<p>
  Bees are more flexible and adaptable than we realized.
 </p>
<p>
  A group of scientists at Queen Mary University of London trained bees to use a tool, a scenario they wouldn’t normally encounter in nature. Using a plastic bee on the end of a stick, biologist Olli J. Loukola showed bees how to move a tiny ball into the center of a platform to unlock a sugary treat. After five days of training, the bees started moving the ball to the center on their own.
 </p>
<figure class="richtext-image full-width">
<img alt="" class="richtext-image full-width" src="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/media/images/bee-1.width-990_46xIwLk.jpg"/>
<figcaption>Bees were trained to move a ball to the center of a platform to unlock a sugary treat.
        
    </figcaption>
</figure>
<p>
  Loukola tried various training methods, including using a “ghost bee”—a magnet under the platform that would move the ball to the center and each proved successful. Bees that weren’t trained did not figure out how to get the treat. Then, he watched to see if the trained bees would show other untrained bees how to get the sugar water, which they did.
 </p>
<p>
  Yet, the bees were not just blindly imitating what they saw other insects do. When put in new kinds of situations, the trained bees adapted their behavior. Here’s Annalee Newitz reporting for Ars Technica:
 </p>
<blockquote>
<p>
   When offered a choice between three balls, the bees always chose to move the one that was closest to the center—even though they’d been trained in a situation where the two closest balls were glued down, and only the farthest ball could be moved. They also chose to use black balls, despite being trained on yellow ones. “The bees did not simply copy the behavior of the demonstrator but rather improved on the observed behavior by using a more optimal route,” Loukola and his colleagues wrote in a recent paper
   <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/355/6327/833">
    in
    <em>
     Science
    </em>
</a>
   .
  </p>
</blockquote>
<p>
  This isn’t the first time the fuzzy critters have been put to the test. Previous experiments have shown they can count, tell each other where food is by using “waggle dances”, and pull strings to get access to food.
 </p>
<div class="cove-box flex-video" data-cove-id="2300846183" data-cove-params="&amp;topbar=false">
</div>
<div class="inline-caption">
  Learn more about the "waggle dance."
 </div>
<p>
  However, Loukola’s new tool test showed bees are not only good at using tools, they can also improvise to use them more effectively.
 </p>
<div class="flex-video">
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="439" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/fJyHeUaSMVw?feature=oembed" width="780">
</iframe>
</div>
<div class="inline-caption">
  Watch the tool-using bees in action.
 </div>
</section>
<p>
 Photo credit:
 <a href="http://www.qmul.ac.uk/media/news/items/se/193087.html">
  Iida Loukola / Queen Mary University of London
 </a>
</p>

New Drug Could Bring Hope to Those At Risk For Huntington's Disease

<section class="entry-content instapaper_body clearfix" itemprop="articleBody">
<div class="add-container clearfix" id="add-block-placer">
</div>
<p>
  In December 2017, a California company called Ionis released its preliminary results from a small Huntington’s disease study. These results have yet to be published or reported at medical meetings, but the findings so far are promising. They’ve developed a drug, called an antisense oligonucleotide, that reduced the production of an abnormal version of the huntingtin protein that could cause the disease.
 </p>
<p>
  Every four weeks for three months, 46 people from the United Kingdom, Germany, and Canada received an injection—of either the drug or a placebo—into their spinal fluid. Three to four months after their final dose, they returned to the lab for tests. The researchers then tallied up how much of the mutated huntingtin protein was present and found a reduced amount of protein in people who received the drug.
 </p>
<figure class="richtext-image full-width">
<img alt="" class="richtext-image full-width" src="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/media/images/brain-cropped.width-990_BDqsvbR.jpg"/>
<figcaption>Wiring in the human brain
        
    </figcaption>
</figure>
<p>
  These results came as a surprise. While trials are often successful in Petri dishes or mice, it’s less common for human trials to be as promising. Here’s Esther Landhuis, reporting for Scientific American:
 </p>
<blockquote>
<p>
   Neuroscientist John Hardy, a University College London colleague not involved in the study, found the results a complete surprise. “It’s all very well to give antisense therapies to a mouse with a 300-milligram brain,” he says. “But to give spinal fluid injections [in people] and have it spread through the brain to an extent great enough to knock down gene expression….” He adds: “Three or four years ago, I would not have expected that to work, and yet it does. This could be a whole new generally applicable type of drug.”
  </p>
</blockquote>
<p>
  Huntington’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease—and like, Lou Gehrig’s, Parkinson’s, and Alzheimer’s, it has no cure. Symptoms like involuntary movement, slowness in speech or thinking, start appearing after a person’s 30
  <sup>
   th
  </sup>
  birthday. It’s an inheritable disease that can be traced to repetitions in a gene known as
  <em>
   HTT
  </em>
  . The brain cells convert this mutation into the protein that is thought to drive Huntington’s.
 </p>
<p>
  That’s where Ionis’s therapy comes in. Unlike other drugs, which target the symptoms, the company’s drug binds to RNA, which translates genes into proteins, and blocks the final set of instructions for making huntingtin.
 </p>
<p>
  While the results have been promising, there’s more work to be done before it becomes widely available. Researchers will need to conduct a larger trial, on the order of hundreds of patients, to see if lowering HTT slows the progression of Huntington’s disease. Then they would trial healthy people with the
  <em>
   HTT
  </em>
  mutation to see if antisense drugs could prevent it altogether.
 </p>
<p>
  This isn’t the first time an antisense drug has helped fight against disease. Two studies focusing on spinal muscular atrophy, an inherited neuromuscular disorder in children, were stopped in 2016 after kids taking the drug showed motor improvements so vast that it became unethical to keep giving other kids the placebo. Later that year, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved the drug.
 </p>
</section>
<p>
 Image credit:
 <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/wellcomeimages/25208604883">
  Wellcome Images / (CC BY 2.0)
 </a>
</p>

New Brain Imaging Tech May Give Doctors More Time to React to Strokes

<section class="entry-content instapaper_body clearfix" itemprop="articleBody">
<div class="add-container clearfix" id="add-block-placer">
</div>
<p>
  In 2016, strokes killed more than 140,000 people in the U.S., making it the fifth-leading cause of death. The long-standing belief was that doctors only had six hours to save brain tissue, but a new study suggests they may actually have up to 16 hours.
 </p>
<p>
  During a stroke, a clot blocks a blood vessel, making it difficult for blood to flow to certain parts of the brain. Typically, doctors administer clot-dissolving medication within the first couple hours then remove what remains of the clot with devices like stents. The earlier a stroke is discovered and treated, the better chance the patient has of recovery.
 </p>
<figure class="richtext-image full-width">
<img alt="" class="richtext-image full-width" src="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/media/images/10818486626_cef8b5dc1d_o.width-990_hUrDRMx.jpg"/>
<figcaption>New research suggests doctors may have up to 16 hours to respond to strokes, which are caused by clots blocking blood flow in the brain.
        
    </figcaption>
</figure>
<p>
  The study involved 182 people from 38 medical centers in the United States. About half of them received the normal procedure of blood pressure medication, blood thinner, and other medical interventions. The other half received a new procedure as well as the usual medications. Fourteen percent of the people who had the new treatment died—and 45% avoided getting severe disabilities and were able to resume their independence—compared to 26% in the other group.
 </p>
<p>
  The procedure, called a thrombectomy, gives doctors more time to save brain tissue where the blood supply may have been cut off, but the tissue hasn’t died yet. The brain imaging technology, developed at Stanford University, uses a dye to show the damaged tissue surrounding dead tissue, allowing doctors up to 16 hours to remove the clot. Here’s Lenny Bernstein reporting for The Washington Post:
 </p>
<blockquote>
<p>
   “The big news is that we were all wrong in how we were thinking about how strokes evolve,” said Gregory W. Albers, a professor of neurology at Stanford University Medical Center and lead author of the new paper. While some brain tissue dies quickly after a stroke begins, in most patients, collateral blood vessels usually take over feeding a larger area of the brain that is also starved for blood and oxygen, giving doctors many more hours to save that tissue than they previously believed, Albers said.
  </p>
</blockquote>
<p>
  This would be useful for people who have strokes in their sleep because it’s often hard to pinpoint the exact time of the stroke or for people who live far from a medical center where they can undergo a clot-removing procedure.
 </p>
<p>
  Earlier this week, the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association released new treatment guidelines—the first in five years. They also included victims of mild strokes to the population of people eligible for clot-dissolving medication.
 </p>
</section>
<p>
 Photo credit:
 <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/liverpoolhls/10818486626">
  University of Liverpool Faculty of Health &amp; Life Sciences / Flickr (CC BY-SA 2.0)
 </a>
</p>

Scientists uncover a jawbone between 177,000 and 194,000 years old—making it the earliest modern human anyone has ever found outside of Africa.

Fossilized Jawbone Hints at a Much Earlier Exodus from Africa

<div class="related"></div>
<p>
</p>
<p>
 Scientists digging in an Israeli cave uncovered a fossilized jawbone from what they believe is the earliest modern human found outside of Africa. The jawbone includes eight teeth—seven of which are intact. This changes the timeline of when
 <i>
  Homo sapiens
 </i>
 ventured out of Africa by about 50,000 years.
</p>
<p>
 Anthropologists previously believed that modern humans began leaving Africa 90,000 to 120,000 years ago. But the cave where the jawbone was discovered is thought to be occupied between 160,000 and 250,000 years ago. Israel Hershkovitz, a paleoanthropologist at Tel Aviv University, found the jawbone and suspected it was evidence of an earlier African exodus.
</p>
<p>
 To test that suspicion, Hershkovitz and his colleagues sent the jawbone on a world tour. First, it traveled to Austria where it underwent high resolution micro-CT scanning and then was compared with with 30 other specimens—which included Neanderthals,
 <i>
  Homo erectus
 </i>
 , and other
 <i>
  Homo sapiens
 </i>
 . In Australia, France, and Israel, they used dating techniques to determine the jawbone’s age.
</p>
<div class="ad"></div>
<p>
 Their results determined that the jawbone is between 177,000 and 194,000 years old—confirming the scientists’ hypothesis. Here’s Nicholas St. Fleur for The New York Times:
</p>
<blockquote>
<p>
 “We are now realizing that it was not one big exodus out of Africa in a given time period,” said Dr. Hershkovitz. “Rather, there was a flow of hominins coming in and out of Africa for at least the last half a million years.”
</p>
</blockquote>
<p>
 This is not the first time Hershkovitz has found modern human fossils. In 2010, he found 400,000-year-old teeth in Israel, and in 2015 he found a 55,000-year-old skull in the Israel.
</p>
<div class="newsletter"></div>
  

  
      Photo credit: Gerhard Weber/University of Vienna

<p>Scientists uncover a jawbone between 177,000 and 194,000 years old—making it the earliest modern human anyone has ever found outside of Africa.</p>

One of Iceland's Biggest Volcanoes May Be Poised for Eruption

<section class="entry-content instapaper_body clearfix" itemprop="articleBody">
<div class="add-container clearfix" id="add-block-placer">
</div>
<p>
  One of Iceland’s most active volcanoes, Bárðarbunga, shook the earth four times in recent weeks, an indication it’s getting ready for eruption. Since part of it sits under an ice cap, an eruption could impact areas beyond the island.
 </p>
<p>
  The earthquakes—measuring magnitudes of 3.9, 3.2, 4.7, and 4.7—are an ominous sign—pressure in the magma chamber below the volcano is likely building to a breaking point. Geologists warn that the volcano is poised to erupt, though they don’t know when it will happen or how significant it will be.
 </p>
<figure class="richtext-image full-width">
<img alt="" class="richtext-image full-width" src="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/media/images/bardarbunga_volcano_september_4_2014_-_1514625.width-990_PhZtQff.jpg"/>
<figcaption>One of Iceland’s most active volcanoes experienced four large earthquakes, indicating it’s getting ready for eruption.
        
    </figcaption>
</figure>
<p>
  Despite Bárðarbunga’s remote location, the effects of its eruption could be felt well beyond Iceland. One-third of the system its a part of is covered by Europe’s largest ice cap, and volcanoes covered with ice can be highly explosive and produce lots of fine ash—which spews into the atmosphere and can affects larger areas. In 2010, when the Eyjafjallajökull volcano erupted, it threw ash miles into the atmosphere. For days, air travel throughout Europe ground to a halt—planes couldn’t risk flying through the engine-destroying ash cloud that stretched from Ireland to Russia.
 </p>
<p>
  Bárðarbunga poses similar risks. Here’s Elaina Zachos, reporting for National Geographic:
 </p>
<blockquote>
<p>
   Eruptions under ice can trigger explosions by turning large volumes of ice into steam, and as magma hits the steam it explodes into fine particles that can shoot high into the atmosphere. Or, lava from an eruption could melt the ice and cause flooding, like that brought on by the Eyjafjallajökull eruption.
  </p>
</blockquote>
<p>
  Bárðarbunga’s most recent explosion was from August 2014 through February 2015, and it was the largest the country had seen in 200 years. Pollution—especially fine particulate matter that can be hazardous to breathe—blanketed western Europe.
 </p>
<p>
  Iceland’s residents aren’t strangers to volcanic eruptions. On average, a volcano in the system erupts once every 50 years.
 </p>
<div class="cove-box flex-video" data-cove-id="3006004034" data-cove-params="&amp;topbar=false">
</div>
<div class="inline-caption">
  Scientists hunt for a mega-eruption that plunged medieval Earth into a deep freeze.
 </div>
</section>
<p>
 Photo credit:
 <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bárðarbunga_Volcano,_September_4_2014_-_15146259395.jpg">
  peterhartree / Wikimedia Commons (CC BY-SA 2.0)
 </a>
</p>

Penguins Use Calls to Form Groups While They Hunt

<section class="entry-content instapaper_body clearfix" itemprop="articleBody">
<div class="add-container clearfix" id="add-block-placer">
</div>
<p>
  In the icy waters off Antarctica, gentoo penguins form groups as they hunt for food. They bob in and out of the water before diving below the surface, seemingly directed by a call. Scientists have long struggled to understand just how gentoo penguins communicate, but a group of researchers may have found a way to eavesdrop.
 </p>
<p>
  Over the course of two Antarctic summers, scientists at the Korean Polar Research Institute (KOPRI) strapped 26 gentoo penguins with cameras, recording almost 600 call events. In the footage, the penguins moved in unison after one or two short, quick calls. Nearly half of the gatherings occurred within a minute after that call was made.
 </p>
<figure class="richtext-image full-width">
<img alt="" class="richtext-image full-width" src="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/media/images/gentoo-penguins.width-990_aigbuhM.jpg"/>
<figcaption>Scientists observed penguins form groups after particular calls—possibly to improve how they hunt.
        
    </figcaption>
</figure>
<p>
  Researchers believe it’s likely the gentoo penguins get into groups to improve their chances of catching food. Here’s Sarah Gibbens reporting for National Geographic:
 </p>
<blockquote>
<p>
   Gentoo penguins typically spend most of their days hunting close to shore, but they’re known to swim as far as 16 miles out to sea and dive nearly 655 feet below water to find food (from fish to krill). The study noted that it’s unlikely the calls are used to alert members of the hunting groups to predators (such as leopard seals), as those animals usually congregate near the shore, and the calls were made in open ocean.
  </p>
</blockquote>
<p>
  Despite this new footage, it’s still unclear what the exact functions of the calls are. Recordings were limited to eight hour segments and the low visibility in the water made it difficult to observe the interactions between penguins. Additionally, the microphone was embedded in the penguins’ feathers, making it difficult to detect how they communicate back-and-forth.
 </p>
<p>
  This study does provide new insights into how these birds live, however the research team hopes to collect more footage by placing cameras on multiple penguins in the same group.
 </p>
<p>
</p>
</section>
<p>
 Photo credit:
 <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ableman/35066888556">
  Scott Ableman / Flickr (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)
 </a>
</p>

Flint Water Tied to Fetal Death and Lower Fertility Rates

<section class="entry-content instapaper_body clearfix" itemprop="articleBody">
<div class="add-container clearfix" id="add-block-placer">
</div>
<p>
  Researchers studying Flint lead water crisis found a decrease in pregnancies and an increase in fetal deaths among Flint women. Fertility rates dropped by 12% while fetal deaths rose by 58%.
 </p>
<p>
  David Slusky from Kansas University and Daniel Grossman from West Virginia University analyzed health records from 2008 to 2015, focusing on women of child-bearing age in Flint and 15 other large Michigan cities, including Detroit. They then calculated the birth rate for each city by looking at the number of live births.
 </p>
<figure class="richtext-image full-width">
<img alt="Flint water plant" class="richtext-image full-width" src="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/media/images/flint-water-plant.width-990_Lv5jg20.jpg"/>
<figcaption>Researchers found a decrease in pregnancies and an increase in fetal deaths among Flint women after the city's lead water crisis.
        
    </figcaption>
</figure>
<p>
  The crisis began in 2014 when, in an effort to save money, the city of Flint Michigan switched its drinking water supply from the city of Detroit to the Flint River. Unfortunately, they didn’t add the necessary anti-corrosives. What ensued was a spike in the amount of lead in drinking water, exposing thousands to unsafe and even poisonous lead levels.
 </p>
<p>
  In addition to health records, the team also looked at data indicating that Flint residents had waited to have children—either by analyzing Google searches for “lead” and “lead poisoning” or reports of less sexual activity during the time period. They didn’t find anything until September 2015, when local government and health officials acknowledged the problem.
 </p>
<p>
  The researchers’ findings reported that on average, babies who came to full term in Flint were born more than five ounces (nearly 150 grams) lighter than in other areas. They were also born a half-week earlier, gained 0.18 ounces (five grams) less per week, and skewed more female.
 </p>
<p>
  “Male fetuses are more fragile and more susceptible to fetal shocks,” Grossman said. “That we find a lower ratio of male to female births suggests to us that fetuses were affected by the water change and that female fetuses came to term more often than male fetuses.”
 </p>
<p>
  Data on fetal death rate is more limited since state statistics are kept only for fetuses that die after 20 weeks and in a hospital.
 </p>
<p>
  “I am not surprised,” said Dr. Mona Hanna-Attisha, director of Pediatric Residency Program at Hurley Medical Center in Flint, Michigan, in an email. “We have known for centuries that lead impacts the unborn.”
 </p>
<p>
  The damage of lead poisoning is irreversible, and it’s most pronounced in the developing brains and nervous systems of children and fetuses. It can lead to decreased bone and muscle growth, lower intelligence, and behavioral problems. But it affects children and fetuses differently.
 </p>
<p>
  At the turn of the 20
  <sup>
   th
  </sup>
  century, pharmacists would sell lead pills to women to end unwanted pregnancies. Lead affects the health a fetus directly, given that it passes through the placenta. This means the fetus may not come to full term, reducing birth rates, as was found in the study.
 </p>
<div class="cove-box flex-video" data-cove-id="3001355667" data-cove-params="&amp;topbar=false">
</div>
<div class="inline-caption">
  What exactly went wrong in Flint—and what does it mean for the rest of the country?
 </div>
<p>
  While the long-term impact of Flint’s decreasing birth rate is hard to predict, the effects of lead exposure causes severe life-long damages to children and fetuses’ neural development.
 </p>
<p>
  “Negative health shocks suffered in utero may affect latent health,” Grossman said. “This group of children exposed to lead in utero may be more susceptible to hypertension or cardiovascular disease in middle age.”
 </p>
<p>
  Dr. Hanna-Attisha has been working on building a registry in Flint to connect people who have been exposed to lead with resources and programs to improve their health. “Since we have realized the widespread crisis, my focus has been moving forward: protecting children from the impact of the crisis/trauma—building resilience, hope, programs and interventions that promote children’s health and development,” she said.
 </p>
<p>
<em>
   This post has been updated to include a comment from Dr. Mona Hanna-Attisha.
  </em>
</p>
</section>
<p>
 Photo credit: Caitlin Saks/WGBH
</p>

Ana Aceves

Articles